From Cyrus to Khamenei: Four Thousand Years of Persian-Jewish Relations

The history of relations between Persia and the Jewish people starts not with hostility, but with liberation. When King Cyrus issued his decree in 538 B.C.E., not only allowing but actively supporting the exiled Jews to return to Judea, the move had groundbreaking importance for the ancient world, where conquerors usually absorbed or destroyed the peoples they took over. In biblical studies, the "Persian period" typically refers to the time when the ancient Persians ruled the entire Near East. It was during this period that many of the key texts of Judaism were formed. Scholars believe that during the Persian era, the Torah reached its final version, the history of ancient Israel and Judah found in the books from Joshua through Kings was finalized, and the prophetic writings were edited.

The Persian Empire officially proclaimed the principle of religious tolerance. Cyrus and his successors not only allowed the Jews to return to their homeland but also partially funded the reconstruction of the Jerusalem Temple. While relations between Israel and Persia had their ups and downs during biblical times, according to Jewish tradition, God used His people to bless the Persians. And the Persians often reciprocated, acting as divine agents for the return of His people to the Promised Land.

The transition from ancient times to modern days shows unexpected continuity. Until 1979, Iran and Israel had close relations, seeing the Arab powers as a common threat. Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi viewed Israel as a natural ally against Arab nationalism, which threatened both the Jewish state and the Persian monarchy. However, the Islamic Revolution of 1979 drastically changed the region's geopolitical landscape. Since 1979, Iran and Israel have had no diplomatic relations and became openly hostile after the Persian Gulf War ended in 1991. The two nations have been enemies for decades—within days of Iran's 1979 Islamic Revolution, Tehran cut off diplomatic ties with Israel. The new Iranian leaders didn't just reject the alliance with Israel—they declared the very existence of the Jewish state illegitimate.

Iranian leaders view Israel as an illegitimate state and try to challenge its legitimacy globally. The current Iranian-Israeli conflict is more than just a territorial dispute or resource competition; it reflects a clash between two vastly different visions of the Middle East. One of the main issues in world politics is the tension between the State of Israel and the Islamic Republic of Iran. Iran's strategy revolves around building an "axis of resistance"—a network of proxy groups across the region, from Hezbollah in Lebanon and Hamas in Gaza to the Houthis in Yemen.

The contemporary Iranian-Israeli conflict can be described as "hybrid warfare." This is not traditional war with clear front lines and official declarations. Nor is it peace in the classic sense. It lies somewhere in between—constant confrontation expressed through cyberattacks, terrorism, the assassination of nuclear scientists, strikes against proxy groups, and psychological warfare. Recent events indicate that this conflict could escalate into actual war. On June 13, 2025, Israel launched Operation "Rising Lion," a large-scale series of attacks targeting Iran's nuclear program and top military leaders. The United States' involvement in the conflict began on June 22, after President Donald Trump issued ultimatums and carried out an unprecedented strike against Iran's strategic facilities, which could mark a turning point in the years-long confrontation.

History provides important lessons for understanding today's crisis. The Persian Empire was diverse and multi-religious, where Jews found not only refuge but also opportunities to thrive. Many held high positions in the administration, such as the biblical Esther and Mordechai at the court of Artaxerxes. Modern Iran, in contrast, is founded on an ideology of exclusivity and exporting radical Islamist revolution. Paradoxically, Iran still hosts a Jewish community—about twenty thousand people who enjoy certain constitutional protections as "People of the Book" and send a representative to parliament, but they remain in an extremely vulnerable position, effectively held hostage. Efforts at diplomatic resolution have repeatedly failed. Nuclear agreements, regional peace initiatives, and mediation by great powers—all of this has not overcome the fundamental incompatibility of the parties' positions.

The Iranian-Israeli conflict has wide-reaching effects beyond just the two countries. It causes instability across the entire Middle East, pulling in Syria, Lebanon, Yemen, Iraq, and the Palestinian territories. Millions face the fallout from this conflict. The economic costs are also huge. Iran spends billions supporting proxy groups instead of boosting its own economy. Israel must maintain one of the world's most advanced armies, allocating a large part of its GDP to defense.

Despite the bleak outlook, history demonstrates that even the deepest conflicts can be resolved. France and Germany were enemies for centuries but eventually laid the foundation for European integration. Achieving peace between Iran and Israel would require fundamental shifts in both sides' approaches. Iran would need to abandon its ideology of exporting the Islamic revolution and acknowledge Israel's right to exist. Conversely, Israel is willing to find ways to engage with Iran as a legitimate regional player and has no inherent contradictions with Iran; furthermore, Israel is ready to cooperate across all fields, including cultural exchanges, since Israel is home to a significant Jewish community of Iranian origin, many of whom cherish Persian culture. For example, singer Rita, one of the prominent figures in Israeli music, performs her songs in Persian. Such changes might seem impossible today, but history is full of unexpected turns, and the enduring friendship between Persians and Jews, which has lasted for over two millennia, can be restored.

When Cyrus the Great issued his decree, he could hardly have foreseen that two and a half millennia later, the descendants of the Jews he liberated and Iran's rulers would become sworn enemies. The history of Iranian-Israeli relations shows how ancient alliances can turn into modern conflicts, but also that even the deepest contradictions are not permanent. Maybe now, when the region is on the verge of a major war, is the time to hope for a better future. The journey from old friendship to new enmity was long and complicated. The way back to peace and cooperation might be just as tough, but it remains possible.